A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[1][2][3]
Several national and local governments have established tax credits, subsidies, and other incentives to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of plug-in electric vehicles depending on battery size and their all-electric range. The term plug-in electric drive vehicle is formally used in U.S. federal legislation to grant this type of consumer incentives.[4][5]
Examples of mass production PEVs available in the several markets by December 2011 include the Tesla Roadster, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, REVAi, BYD F3DM, Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Volt, Smart ED, Wheego Whip LiFe, Fisker Karma, BYD e6, and several neighborhood electric vehicles (NEV). There are also several demonstration vehicles undergoing trial programs including the Mini E, Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Volvo C30 Electric, and Honda Fit EV.[6][7]
As of December 2010, the GEM neighborhood electric vehicle, with global sales of 45,000 units, is the world's most sold plug-in electric vehicle.[8] The world's top selling highway-capable electric cars are the Nissan Leaf, with more than 20,000 units sold worldwide by November 2011,[9] and the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, with global cumulative sales of more than 17,000 units through October 2011.[10] The United States and Japan are the world's largest highway-capable plug-in electric car markets as of November 2011. Since December 2010, more than 15,000 plug-in electric cars have been sold in the U.S. through November 2011, with the Nissan Leaf (8,738 units) and the Chevrolet Volt (6,468 units) as the top selling PEVs.[11] Since July 2009, more than 13,000 electric cars have been sold in Japan by November 2011, including more than 8,000 Leafs[12] and 5,000 i-MiEVs.[13]
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A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle with rechargeable battery packs that can be charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on board drives or contributes to drive the wheels for propulsion.[1][2] Plug-in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid-enabled vehicles (GEV)[2] and also as electrically chargeable vehicles.[14]
PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[1][2] Even though conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have a battery that is continually recharged with power from the internal combustion engine and regenerative braking, they can not be recharged from an off-vehicle electric energy source, and therefore, they do not belong to the category of plug-in electric vehicles.[1][2]
"Plug-in electric drive vehicle" is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for federal tax credits depending on battery size and their all-electric range.[4][5] In some European countries, particularly in France, "electrically chargeable vehicle" is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives.[15] While the term "plug-in electric vehicle" most often refers to automobiles or "plug-in cars", there are several other types of plug-in electric vehicle, including scooters, motorcycles, neighborhood electric vehicles or microcars, city cars, vans, light trucks or light commercial vehicles, buses, trucks or lorries, and military vehicles.[6]
A battery electric vehicle (BEV) uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs as its only source for propulsion.[2][16] BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion.[2]
A plug-in hybrid operates as an all electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge-depleting mode, but it switches to charge-sustaining mode after the battery has reached its minimum state of charge (SOC) threshold, exhausting the vehicle's all-electric range (AER).[17][18]
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV or PHV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source.[2][19] A plug-in hybrid shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle and an all-electric vehicle: it uses a gasoline engine and an electric motor for propulsion, but a PHEV has a larger battery pack that can be recharged, allowing operation in all-electric mode until the battery is depleted.[19][20][21]
An aftermarket electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.[7][22][23]
There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions. The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug-in hybrid, but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker, the easiest conversions are for 2004–2009 Toyota Prius and for the Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner Hybrid.[7]
Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motors, on the other hand, are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reused as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking.[24][25] Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80%.[24]
In the United States, as of early 2010 with a national average electricity rate of US$0.10 per kWh,[27] the cost per mile for a plug-in electric vehicle operating in all-electric mode is estimated between $0.02 to $0.04, while the cost per mile of a standard automobile varies between $0.08 to $0.20, considering a gasoline price of $3.00 per gallon.[24] Aspetroleum price is expected to increase in the future due to oil production decline and increases in global demand, the cost difference in favor of PEVs is expected to become even more advantageous.[24]
According to Consumer Reports, as of December 2011 the Nissan Leaf has a cost of 3.5 cents per mile and the Chevrolet Volt has a cost in electric mode of 3.8 cents per mile. The Volt cost per mile is higher because it is heavier than the Leaf. These estimates are based on the fuel economy and energy consumption measured on their tests and using a U.S. national average rate of 11 cents per kWh of electricity. When the Volt runs in range-extended mode using its premium gasoline-powered engine, the plug-in hybrid has a cost of 12.5 cents per mile. The out-of-pocket cost per mile of the three most fuel efficient gasoline-powered cars as tested by the magazine are the Toyota Prius, with a cost of 8.6 cents per miles, the Honda Civic Hybrid with 9.5 cents per mile, the Toyota Corolla with 11.9 cents per mile, and the Hyundai Elantra 13.1 cents per mile. The analysis also found that on trips up to 100 mi (160 km), the Volt is cheaper to drive than the Prius and the other three cars due to the Volt's 35 mi (56 km) driving range on electricity. The previous operating costs do not include maintenance, depreciation or other costs.[28]
All-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.[24][25]
The following table compares out-of-pocket fuel costs estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency according to its official ratings for fuel economy (miles per gallon gasoline equivalent in the case of PEVs) for three 2012 model year plug-in cars available in the U.S., and the U.S. EPA rated most fuel efficient gasoline-electric hybrid car and gasoline only cars for model year 2012.
| Comparison of fuel efficiency and economics for three 2012 PEVs available in the U.S. market against the EPA rated most fuel efficient hybrid electric vehicle and gasoline-powered car in the U.S. for model year 2012 (Fuel economy and operating costs as displayed in the Monroney label and the U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's fueleconomy.gov website for model year 2012) |
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | Model year |
Type of powertrain |
Operating mode |
EPA rated Combined fuel economy |
EPA rated City fuel economy |
EPA rated Highway fuel economy |
Cost to drive 25 miles |
Annual Fuel Cost |
Notes |
| Mitsubishi i-MiEV[29] | 2012 | Electric car | All-electric | 112 mpg-e (30 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
126 mpg-e (27 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
99 mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
$0.90 | $540 | See (1) |
| Nissan Leaf[30] | 2012 | Electric car | All-electric | 99 mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
106 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
92 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
$1.02 | $612 | See (1) |
| Chevrolet Volt[31] | 2012 | Plug-in hybrid | Electricity only | 94 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
95 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
93 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
$1.08 | $648 | See (1) |
| Gasoline only | 37 mpg | 35 mpg | 40 mpg | $2.41 | $1,442 | ||||
| Toyota Prius[32] | 2012 | Hybrid electric vehicle | Gasoline-electric hybrid |
50 mpg | 51 mpg | 48 mpg | $1.64 | $987 | See (2) |
| Scion iQ[33] | 2012 | 1.3L automatic gasoline-powered |
Gasoline only | 37 mpg | 36 mpg | 37 mpg | $2.22 | $1,334 | See (2) |
| Notes: All estimated fuel costs based on 15,000 miles annual driving, 45% highway and 55% city. (1) Electricity cost of $0.12/kw-hr and Volt uses premium gasoline priced at $3.56 per gallon (as of early December 2011). Conversion 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kW-hr. (2) Regular gasoline price of $3.29 per gallon (as of early December 2011). |
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Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants.[25] In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.[1][25] On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicles.[25][34] In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy.[1]
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; California, where most energy comes from natural gas, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The U.K. also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as natural gas plants dominate the generation mix. On the other hand, emission benefits in Germany, China, India, and the central regions of the United States are limited or non-existent because most electricity is generated from coal.[25][35][36] However these countries and regions might still obtain some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas. Cites with chronic air pollution problems, such as Los Angeles, México City, Santiago, Chile, São Paulo, Beijing, Bangkok and Katmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.[25]
A report published in June 2011, prepared by Ricardo in collaboration with experts from the UK’s Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership, found that hybrid electric cars, plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles, but still have a lower overall carbon footprint over the full life cycle. The higher carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the production of batteries. As an example, 43 percent of production emissions for a mid-size electric car are generated from the battery production, while for standard mid-sized gasoline internal combustion engine vehicle, around 75% of the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel used in the vehicle glider.[37] The following table summarizes key results of this study for four powertrain technologies:
| Comparison of full life cycle assessment (well-to-wheels) of carbon emissions and carbon footprint during production for four different powertrain technologies[37] |
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Type of vehicle (powertrain) |
Estimated emissions in production (tonnes CO2e) |
Estimated lifecycle emissions (tonnes CO2e) |
Percentage of
emissions |
| Standard gasoline vehicle | 5.6 | 24 | 23% |
| Hybrid electric vehicle | 6.5 | 21 | 31% |
| Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle | 6.7 | 19 | 35% |
| Battery electric vehicle | 8.8 | 19 | 46% |
| Notes: Estimates based upon a 2015 model vehicle assuming 150,000 km (93,000 mi) full life travel using 10% ethanol blend and 500g/kWh grid electricity. | |||
The study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid-sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical, and that the greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production emissions.[37]
For many net oil importing countries the 2000s energy crisis brought back concerns first raised during the 1973 oil crisis. For the United States, the other developed countries and emerging countries their dependence on foreign oil has revived concerns about their vulnerability to price shocks and supply disruption. Also, there have been concerns about the uncertainty surrounding peak oil production and the higher cost of extracting unconventional oil. A third issue that has been raised is the threat to national security because most proven oil reserves are concentrated in relatively few geographic locations, including some countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostile to U.S. interests.[25][38][39] In addition, for many developing countries, and particularly for the poorest African countries, high oil prices have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments, all leading to lower economic growth.[40][41]
Through the gradual replacement of internal combustion engine vehicles for electric cars and plug-in hybrids, electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the transport sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more resilient energy supply.[25][38][39][42]
Plug-in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the power grid, thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks.[43] A vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid. In the U.S this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car.[44] In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.[43][45][46]
As of 2010 plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery pack. According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council, the cost of a lithium-ion battery pack is about US$1,700/kW·h of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV-10 requires about 2.0 kW·h and a PHEV-40 about 8 kW·h, the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV-10 is around US$3,000 and it goes up to US$14,000 for a PHEV-40.[47][48]
A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center, Harvard University, found that the gasoline costs savings of plug-in electric cars do not offset their higher purchase prices when comparing their lifetime net present value of purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market at 2010 prices, and assuming no government subidies. According to the study estimates, a PHEV-40 is US$5,377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while a battery electric vehicles is US$4,819 more expensive.[49] These findings assumed a battery cost of US$600 per kWh, which means that the Chevrolet Volt battery pack cost around US$10,000 and the Nissan Leaf pack costs US$14,400. The study also assumed a gasoline price of US$3.75 per gallon (as of mid June 2011), that vehicles are driven 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per year, an average price of electricity of US$0.12 per kWh, that the plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time, and that the owner of PEVs pay US$1,500 to install a Level II 220/240 volt charger at home.[50]
The study also include hybrid electric vehicles in the comparison, and analyzed several scenarios to determine how the comparative net savings will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase, and also assuming higher fuel efficiency of conventional cars, among other scenarios. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars (US$1,155 to US$7,181 cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in an scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. The reason for the different savings among PEVs is because BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines. The following table summarizes the results of four of the seven scenarios analyzed by the study.[50]
| Comparison of net lifetime savings among conventional gasoline-powered cars, hybrids and plug-in electric cars for several scenarios (U.S. market at 2010 prices)[50] |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Description | Conventional ICE |
Hybrid electric (HEV) |
Plug-in hybrid (PHEV) |
Battery electric (BEV) |
| Scenario: 2010 costs (battery US$600 per kWh, gasoline US$3.75 per gallon, and electricity US$0.12 per kWh) |
||||
| Purchase price | US$21,390 | US$22,930 | US$30,235 | US$33,565 |
| Total net present cost | US$32,861 | US$33,059 | US$38,239 | US$37,680 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | US$197 | US$5,377 | US$4,819 |
| Scenario: Future Costs - Lower battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices (battery US$300 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh) |
||||
| Total net present cost | US$34,152 | US$32,680 | US$34,601 | US$30,674 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | (US$1,472) | US$449 | (US$3,478) |
| Scenario: Future Costs - Low battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices (battery US$150 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh) |
||||
| Total net present cost | US$34,152 | US$32,080 | US$32,549 | US$26,971 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | (US$2,072) | (US$1,603) | (US$7,181 |
| Scenario: Higher fuel efficiency ICEs:50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp) HEVs and PHEVs: 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) (battery US$300 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh) |
||||
| Total net present cost | US$32,829 | US$31,366 | US$34,403 | US$30,674 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | (US$463) | US$2,574 | (US$1,155) |
| Note: Assumes vehicles are driven 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per year and plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time | ||||
Despite the widespread assumption that plug-in recharging will take place overnight at home, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might be less likely to buy plug-in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed.[51][52] Electrical outlets or charging stations near their places of residence, in commercial or public parking lots, streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination, commonly called range anxiety.[52][53] Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers.[54] However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.[53]
Several cities in California and Oregon, and particularly San Francisco and other cities in the San Francisco Bay Area and Silicon Valley, already have deployed public charging stations and have expansion plans to attend both plug-ins and all-electric cars.[53] Some local private firms such as Google and Adobe Systems have also deployed charging infrastructure. In Google's case, its Mountain View campus has 100 available charging stations for its share-use fleet of converted plug-ins available to its employees.[53][55] Solar panels are used to generate the electricity, and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily basis and performance results are published on the RechargeIT website.[55]
A different approach to resolve the problems of range anxiety and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by Better Place. Its business model considers that electric cars will be built and sold separately from the battery pack. As customers are not be allowed to purchase battery packs, instead, they must lease them from Better Place which will deploy a network of battery swapping stations thus expanding EVs range and allowing long distance trips. Subscribed users will pay a per-distance fee to cover battery pack leasing, charging and swap infrastructure, the cost of sustainable electricity, and other costs.[56][57] The firm has already tested battery-swap stations allowing drivers to exchange their car's depleted battery pack for a fully recharged one in less than a minute.[58] Better Place has already signed agreement for deployment in Australia, Denmark, Israel, Canada, California, and Hawaii.[59]
The REVA NXR exhibited in the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and the Nissan Leaf SV trim both have roof-mounted solar panels. These solar panels are designed to trickle charge the batteries when the car is moving or parked.[60][61][62] Another proposed technology is REVive, by REVA. When the Reva NXR's batteries are running low or are fully depleted, the driver is able to send an SMS to REVive and unlock a hidden reserve in the battery pack. REVA has not provided details on how the system will work.[63][64]
Other upcoming plug-in vehicles to use solar panels to charge the batteries include the Ford Focus Electric and the Fisker Karma.[65]
The existing electrical grid, and local transformers in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in owners to recharge mostly overnight, when rates are lower.[53][66]
Electric cars and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by a internal combustion engine, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects. However, blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence electric-drive cars and hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds.[67][68] Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (30 km/h) for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired.[69][70] At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise.[68]
Some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety issue, and as a result, the new Nissan Leaf electric car and Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, both launched in December 2010, as well as the Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid due in 2011, include manually-activated electric warning sounds to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to their presence.[71][72][73][74]
The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourismissued guidelines for hybrid and other near-silent vehicles in January 2010.[75] In the United States the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives in December 2010.[76][77][78] The act does not stipulate a specific speed for the simulated noise but requires the U.S. Department of Transportation to study and establish a motor vehicle safety standard that would set requirements for an alert sound that allows blind and other pedestrians to reasonably detect a nearby electric drive vehicles, and the ruling must be finalized within eighteen months.[76][79]
Current technology for plug-ins and electric cars is based on the lithium-ion battery and an electric motor which uses rare earth elements. The demand for lithium, heavy metals and other rare elements (such as neodymium, boron and cobalt) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the incoming market entrance of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term.[80][81] The Toyota Prius battery contains more than 20 pounds (9.1 kg) of the rare earth element lanthanum,[82] and its motor magnets use neodymium and dysprosium.[83]
Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.[80][81][84][85]
The main deposits of lithium are found in China and throughout the Andes mountain chain in South America. In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China, Argentina, and Australia.[81][87] In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[88][89]
Nearly half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia,[81][84] and according to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium.[84][88] Other important reserves are located in Chile, China, and Brazil.[81][88] Since 2006 the Bolivian government have nationalized oil and gas projects and is keeping a tight control over mining its lithium reserves. Already the Japanese and South Korean governments, as well as companies from these two countries and France, have offered technical assistance to develop Bolivia's lithium reserves and are seeking to gain access to the lithium resources through a mining and industrialization model suitable to Bolivian interests.[84][90][91]
According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California Berkeley, currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles, as the study estimated that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries for electric car could be built with current reserves, as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey.[92] Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found that there are sufficient lithium resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required from the potential demand due to widespread use of electric vehicles, including hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles. The study estimated global lithium reserves at 90 million tons and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed was estimated to be in the range of 12-20 million tons depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.[93]
China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare earth elements, the United States has 13%, and Russia, Australia, and Canada have significant deposits. Until the 1980s, the U.S. led the world in rare earth production, but since the mid 1990's China controls the world market for these elements. The mines in Bayan Obo near Baotou, Inner Mongolia, are the greatest source of rare earth metals, providing 80% of China's rare earths production. In 2010 the country accounted for 97% of the global production of 17 rare earth elements.[82] Since 2006 the Chinese government has been imposing export quotas reducing supply at a rate of 5% to 10% a year.[85][94][95]
Prices of several rare earth elements increased sharply by mid 2010 as China imposed a 40% export reduction, citing environmental concerns as the reason for the export restrictions. These quotas have been interpreted as an attempt to control the supply of rare earths. However, the high prices have provided an incentive to begin or reactivate several rare earth mining projects around the world, including the United States, Australia, Vietnam, and Kazakhstan.[94][95][96][97]
In September 2010, China temporarily blocked all exports of rare elements to Japan in the midst of a diplomatic dispute between the two countries. These minerals are used in hybrid cars and other products such wind turbines and guided missiles, thereby augmenting the worries about the dependence on Chinese rare earth elements and the need for geographic diversity of supply.[95][98] A December 2010 report published by the US DoE found that the American economy vulnerable to rare earth shortages and estimates that it could take 15 years to overcome dependence on Chinese supplies.[99][100] China raised export taxes for some rare earths from 15 to 25%, and also extended taxes to exports of some rare earth alloys that were not taxed before. The Chinese government also announced further reductions on its export quotas for the first months of 2011, which represent a 35% reduction in tonnage as compared to exports during the first half of 2010.[101]
On September 29, 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Rare Earths and Critical Materials Revitalization Act of 2010 (H.R.6160).[102][103] The approved legislation is aimed at restoring the U.S. as a leading producer of rare earth elements, and would support activities in the U.S. Department of Energy (US DoE) to discover and develop rare earth sites inside of the U.S. in an effort to reduce the auto industry's near-complete dependence on China for the minerals.[103][104] A similar bill, the Rare Earths Supply Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010 (S. 3521), is being discussed in the U.S. Senate.[103][105]
In order to avoid its dependence on rare earth minerals, Toyota Motor Corporation announced in January 2011 that is developing for future hybrid and electric cars an alternative motor does not need rare earth materials. Toyota engineers in Japan and the U.S. are developing an induction motor that is lighter and more efficient than the magnet-type motor used in the Prius, which uses two rare elements in its motor magnets. Other popular hybrids and plug-in electric cars in the market that use these rare earth elements are the Nissan Leaf, the Chevrolet Volt and Honda Insight. For its second generation RAV4 EV due in 2012, Toyota will use an induction motor supplied by Tesla Motors that does not use rare earth materials. The Tesla Roadster and future Tesla Model S use a similar motor.[83]
Several national and local governments around the world have established tax credits, grants and other financial and non-financial incentives for consumers to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle as a policy to promote the introduction and mass market adoption of this type of vehicles.
In May 2009 the Japanese Diet passed the "Green Vehicle Purchasing Promotion Measure" that went into effect on June 19, 2009, but retroactive to April 10, 2009.[106] The program established tax deductions and exemptions for environmentally friendly and fuel efficient vehicles, according to a set of stipulated environmental performance criteria, and the requirements are applied equally to both foreign and domestically produced vehicles. The program provides purchasing subsidies for two type of cases, consumers purchasing a new passenger car without trade-in (non-replacement program), and for those consumers buying a new car trading an used car registered 13 years ago or earlier (scrappage program).[106][107]
On June 1, 2010, The Chinese government announced a trial program to provide incentives up to 60,000 yuan (~US$8,785) for private purchase of new battery electric vehicles and 50,000 yuan (~US$7,320) for plug-in hybrids in five cities.[108][109]
As of April 2010, the Czech Republic, Romania, and 15 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of PEVs and hybrid vehicles.[15][110] In the U.K. the Plug-in Car Grant Program provides a 25% incentive towards the cost of new plug-in electric cars that qualify as ultra-low carbon vehicles, but the benefit is capped at GB£5,000 (US$7,800). Both private and business fleet buyers are eligible for the government grant.[111][112]
In the United States the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) granted tax credits for new qualified plug-in electric vehicles.[4] The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug-ins, though the credit is lower than for new PEVs.[5]
The federal tax credit for new plug-in electric vehicles is worth $2,500 plus $417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 5 kWh, and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed $5,000. Therefore, the total amount of the credit allowed for a new PEV is $7,500.[4] Several states have established incentives and tax exemptions for BEVs and PHEV, and other non-monetary incentives.
Two separate initiatives are being pursued in 2011 to transform the tax credit into into a cash rebate worth up to $7,500. The initiatives by Senator Debbie Stabenow and the Obama Administration seek to make new qualifying plug-in electric cars more accessible to buyers by making the incentive more effective. The rebate will be available at the point of sale allowing consumers to avoid a wait of up to a year to apply the tax credit against income tax returns.[113][114][115] Another change to the rules governing the tax credit was introduced by Senator Carl Levin and Representative Sander Levin who are proposing to raise the existing cap on the number of plug-in vehicles eligible for the tax credit. The proposal raises that limit from the existing 200,000 PEVs per manufacturer to 500,000 units.[113]
Ontario established a rebate between CAD 5,000 to CAD 8,500 (~US$4,900 to US$8,320), depending on battery size, for purchasing or leasing a new plug-in electric vehicle after July 1, 2010. The rebates will be available to the first 10,000 applicants who qualify.[116]
During the 1990s several plug-in electric cars were produced in limited quantities, all were battery electric vehicles, and they were available through leasing mainly in California. Popular models included the General Motors EV1, the Ford TH!NK City, and the Toyota RAV4 EV. Some of the latter were sold to the public and are in use still today.[117]
After the mid 2000s a new wave of mass production plug-in electric cars, motorcycles and light trucks were developed and are available in several countries and regions. Popular models include the Tesla Roadster electric car, available in the US, Europe, Asia, and Australia; the BYD F3DM plug-in hybrid and BYD e6 electric car available in China; the Th!nk City was available in several European countries and the US; the Mitsubishi i MiEV is available in Japan, Hong Kong, Australia, the UK, Costa Rica, Chile, and several European countries; the Nissan Leaf is available in Japan, the US, Canada, the UK and several other European countries; the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid is available in selected markets in the U.S. and Canada. The Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid and the Smart ED and Wheego Whip electric cars are available in selected U.S. markets. The Mia electric is available in France and Germany. Other models undergoing field testing include the Mini E, the Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid; the Prius Plug-in Hybrid; and the Ford Focus Electric.[6]
Commercial plug in motorcycles include the Brammo Enertia, the Yamaha EC-03, and the Zero X.[118][119][120] Plug-in electric light trucks include the Azure Transit Connect Electric, Cleanova, Bright IDEA plug-in hybrid, and Miles Electric Vehicles.[6]
As of November 2011, the United States and Japan are the largest highway-capable plug-in electric car markets in the world, followed by several European countries. In the U.S. more than 15,000 plug-in electric cars have been sold since December 2010 through November 2011, with sales led by the Nissan Leaf (8,738 units) and the Chevrolet Volt (6,468 units).[11] In Japan, more than 13,000 electric cars have been sold by November 2011, including more than 8,000 Leafs[12] and 5,000 i-MiEVs.[13] As of November 2011, Norway had 5,301 registered electric cars, with sales led by the Mitsubishi i-MiEV with more than 1,000 units sold.[122][123] Norway has the largest fleet of PEVs in Europe and the largest per capita in the world,[121] Germany had 2,307 units registered by January 1, 2011,[124] and a total of 1,020 units were sold during the first half of 2011.[125] By mid 2011, the UK had a fleet of electric cars of almost 2,500 units,[126] and a total of 812 units were sold between January and August 2011.[127] Since January 2011, 1,630 electric cars have been sold in France through October,[128] up from 184 units in 2010.[129] Also during 2010, around 1,200 non highway-capable PEVs were sold in the French market, including 406 heavy quadricycles and 796 utility vehicles.[130] During the first half of 2011, a total of 5,222 electric cars were sold in the 15 EU markets, led by Germany (1,020), France (953) and Norway (850).[125]
As of December 2010, the Global Electric Motorcars neighborhood electric vehicle, with global sales of 45,000 units, is the world's most sold plug-in electric vehicle.[8] The Leaf, with more than 20,000 units sold worldwide by November 2011,[9] and the i-MiEV, with global cumulative sales of more than 17,000 units through October 2011, are the world's top selling highway-capable electric cars.[10] The following table presents key features and sales of highway-capable and city plug-in cars available by December 2011:
| Key features and sales of popular PEVs available for retail sales or leasing (as of October 2011) |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model | Type of PEV |
All-electric range |
Market launch |
Production/Sales |
| Global Electric Motorcars | Neighborhood electric vehicle | Up to 30 mi (48 km) | 1998 | 45,000 GEMs sold worldwide as of December 2010.[8] |
| REVAi/G-Wiz i REVA L-ion |
Electric car | 48 mi (77 km) 75 mi (121 km) (L-ion) |
2001 | More than 4,000 cars sold worldwide as of mid March 2011.[131] |
| Tesla Roadster | Electric car | 245 mi (394 km)[132] | March 2008 | 2,024 units sold in 30 countries through September 2011.[133][134] |
| BYD F3DM | Plug-in hybrid | 60 mi (97 km) | December 2008 | 465 units sold in China until December 2010.[135][136] |
| Th!nk City | Electric car | 100 mi (160 km) | December 2008 /December 2009 |
1,045 units sold in Europe and the U.S. by March 2011.[137] Production in Finland and the U.S. was halted as a result of Think Global filing for bankruptcy in June 2011.[138][139][140] The firm was bought in July 2011 and production is scheduled to restart in early 2012 with a refined Think City.[141] |
| Mitsubishi i MiEV | Electric car | Japan: 160 km (100 mi) EPA: 62 miles (100 km) |
July 2009 | More than 17,000 units sold worldwide through October 2011,[10] including, as of September 2011, 4,000 units rebadged in France as Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-ZERO for sale in Europe.[142] 5,000 i-MiEVs sold in Japan through October 2011.[13] 1,065 units sold in France through October 2011, including 513 iOns, 508 C-Zeros and 44 i-MiEVs.[143] More than 1,000 i-MiEVs sold in Norway through November 2011.[122][123] 600 i-MiEVs sold in Germany as of mid August 2011.[144] |
| Nissan Leaf | Electric car | EPA: 73 mi (117 km) NEDC: 175 km (109 mi) |
December 2010 | 20,000 units sold worldwide by November 2011.[9] More than 8,000 Leafs sold in Japan by mid November 2011.[12] 608 units delivered in the U.K.[145] 8,738 Leafs in the U.S. through November 2011.[11] |
| Chevrolet Volt | Plug-in hybrid | 35 mi (56 km) | December 2010 | 6,468 units sold in the U.S. through November 2011.[11] 243 units sold in Canada through November 2011.[146] |
| Azure Transit Connect Electric | Electric van | 56 mi (90 km) | December 2010 | 460 units sold worldwide as of October 2011.[147] |
| Smart ED | Electric car | 63 mi (101 km) | January 2011 | 206 units have been leased in the U.S. through November 2011.[148] Fleets of 300 Smart EDs each were deployed in San Diego and Amsterdam in November 2011 as part of the Car2Go carsharing service.[149][150] |
| Fisker Karma | Plug-in hybrid | 32 mi (51 km) | July 2011[151] | Initial production is limited to 5 cars a week, and Fisk expects to rise production to 300 cars a week by November 2011.[152] |
| BYD e6 | Electric car | 190 mi (310 km) | October 2011 | Sales to the general public limited to Shenzhen, China.[153] |
|
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